Floating nuclear power plants as part of the future energy market. Problems of regulatory framework of the FNPP.
(Part 1)
(Part 1)
*The original language of the text Is Russian so there could be some mistakes and typo in the text.
Abstract: Modern international relations have largely changed and gone through several stages of development since the Yalta-Potsdam system was established. The sphere of close attention of international actors included all new industries, which subsequently acquired their own legal framework, regulatory and discussion organizations, as result eventually becoming an integral part of the system. One of these vectors is the energy sector, the structure of which is complicated by the presence of several areas of activity, including the oil and gas industry, the thermal power complex, the coal industry, and the water sector. With the development of society, the energy sector also underwent changes and its structure included new types, such as solar and wind energy, hydrogen and nuclear industries. Each of them requires its own regulatory framework in terms of regulation in order to ensure the safety of people and the environment, taking into account the permanent development and the emergence of new technologies.
In this article, the authors consider regulation in the nuclear industry as an integral part of the international energy market and in the framework of arrival of new types of energy sources, in particular floating nuclear power plants, as well as the need for their development in the context of modern international relations.
Key words: energy, FNPP, international regulation, safety and security, IAEA, IMO.
Abstract: Modern international relations have largely changed and gone through several stages of development since the Yalta-Potsdam system was established. The sphere of close attention of international actors included all new industries, which subsequently acquired their own legal framework, regulatory and discussion organizations, as result eventually becoming an integral part of the system. One of these vectors is the energy sector, the structure of which is complicated by the presence of several areas of activity, including the oil and gas industry, the thermal power complex, the coal industry, and the water sector. With the development of society, the energy sector also underwent changes and its structure included new types, such as solar and wind energy, hydrogen and nuclear industries. Each of them requires its own regulatory framework in terms of regulation in order to ensure the safety of people and the environment, taking into account the permanent development and the emergence of new technologies.
In this article, the authors consider regulation in the nuclear industry as an integral part of the international energy market and in the framework of arrival of new types of energy sources, in particular floating nuclear power plants, as well as the need for their development in the context of modern international relations.
Key words: energy, FNPP, international regulation, safety and security, IAEA, IMO.
Akademic Lomonosov | Rosatom
The problem of providing the domestic market with energy resources has been relevant throughout almost the entire history of mankind and has not lost its relevance to this day. However, its striking feature is its close interdependence and connection with technological progress. Until the beginning of the 19th century, for more than dozens of centuries, the main resources necessary for the life and existence of states were natural resources that were the most accessible and amenable to processing, in particular: wood, metals, water, etc. The latter occupied a special place in the history of human existence.
With the development of technology, the emergence of new industries, industrial and later scientific and technical revolutions, all new types of energy resources came to the center of the world market, which found their application in various fields. That is how, in a certain period of time, widely used coal was partially replaced by oil and gas, but they did not remain forever, because new types of electricity generation appeared on the world stage, namely nuclear power plants and renewable energy sources (hereinafter referred to as RES), which gradually became increasingly popular. They have given many States the opportunity to reduce energy dependence on other subjects of the international energy arena and increase the diversification of electricity generation.
The role of alternative energy sources
The development of alternative energy sources and the abandonment of traditional ones, in the form of oil, gas and coal, is one of the most frequently mentioned and relevant topics of the modern world. Regular conferences on climate change, as well as meetings at the highest levels, in the form of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention (hereinafter – COP), the Paris Summit, signed by: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (hereinafter – UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol, as well as the raising of this topic at forums such as the World Economic Forum, emphasizes the special importance and concern of world leaders and leading multinational companies with this problem [1],[2]. However, in the context of "new" energy sources, it is necessary to talk about their benefits from the point of view of ensuring energy security and diversifying the energy market, since this topic is less rhetorical and depends more on the specific actions of each interested participant in the international arena, while "combating climate change" is more debatable today and it requires coordinated actions by the parties involved, taking into account the peculiarities of national economies and the potential to achieve the set goals.
For more than 30 years, the abandonment of non–renewable sources (hereinafter referred to as NRS), including types of fuel and energy complex (hereinafter referred to as FEC), has occupied leading positions on the agendas of many states. However, as statistics for 2022 show, so far the overall distribution of energy resources has undergone only minor changes and NIE prevails in the markets of most countries, including the participants of the UNFCCC.
The percentage ratio of the use of both renewable energy and non-renewable energy sources is especially important to consider from the point of view of the distribution of mineral deposits, since upon detailed examination, the resulting picture shows that many countries, including developed ones, are heavily dependent, while the supply of necessary resources to a certain extent affects the rise in energy prices, which in turn makes it less accessible. Moreover, a distinctive feature of the use of fossil fuels is the necessary infrastructure for its processing and, subsequently, generation of electricity. The construction of such technologies requires impressive economic investments, which many developing countries, especially on the African continent, do not have. Ultimately, with large reserves of minerals, some states are forced to import electricity and, due to its cost, as well as limited volume, do not have an additional opportunity that would allow them to direct the excess energy received to the development and modernization of the domestic market, including the construction of production facilities on their territory.
The development of alternative energy sources will allow many states to reduce their dependence on foreign supplies, thereby opening up new opportunities for the development of national industry and the creation of necessary infrastructure, including social infrastructure. However, in this context, it is necessary to take into account the geographical feature of the country, as well as the potential level of electricity consumption, taking into account its further development. Moreover, as emphasized in the article by V.G. Rodionova "Economics and technologies of floating nuclear power plants: Akademik Lomonosov NPP", a variety of high-tech and energy-intensive industries are moving from mainland territories to water spaces, for example, in the field of mining and processing metallurgical industry, which makes us think about the development of new, more mobile, energy sources applicable in remote and hard-to-reach places [6].
Today, the most developed alternative energy sources are: solar power plants (hereinafter referred to as SPP), wind farms (hereinafter referred to as WPP), hydroelectric power plants and nuclear power plants. While the first three categories largely depend on both weather and landscape conditions, nuclear power plants are less susceptible to external influences and their overall efficiency significantly exceeds the coefficient of WPP, SPP or NPP.
Comparing the amount of electricity generated by different types of sources, it is worth giving an example of maps published by a company engaged in the development of energy sources – Terra Praxis. Speaking at a Symposium on the development and institutionalization of floating Nuclear Power Plants (hereinafter — the IAEA Symposium), the company's executive director demonstrated a visual map showing the ratio of the required occupied areas of nuclear power plants and SES for the production of 5 million barrels of oil Equivalent with zero carbon content. The area required by the SES to generate an equivalent amount of energy is 20,000 square kilometers, while 189 square kilometers is enough for a nuclear power plant [7]. Such a ratio shows a significant difference in the LUI (land use intensity) indicator between nuclear power plants and SES, which can serve as confirmation of the higher efficiency of nuclear power plants.
It should also be added that the construction of various kinds of hydraulic structures often requires significant efforts in negotiations with neighboring states, because often, especially in arid regions, water plays a vital role for the population, it is used as a source of fresh drinking water, for irrigation of agricultural land and for communal purposes. Given that most rivers flow through several states, the construction of hydroelectric power plants can significantly affect the quantity and quality of incoming water in States located further south along the riverbed. In addition to the fact that the international legal regulation of this issue is considered to be not fully formulated and not complete, the occurrence of such a dispute due to the construction of water infrastructure may lead to a dispute and conflict between the parties concerned. A striking example is the long-running conflict, often turning into active phases, between India and Pakistan, where one of the reasons is water use. It is in the Kashmir region that the headwaters of four rivers are located, which are of particular importance for irrigation systems
Islamabad [8].
Speaking about the development of nuclear power plants, it should be emphasized that their advantage is due to the amount of potential electricity generated. Taking into account the fact that many states today do not require a large amount of electricity, due to the lack of energy–intensive industry and any other infrastructure, modern companies in the field of nuclear industry develop and design both small modular reactors (hereinafter - SMR) and nuclear microreactors suitable for countries with low power consumption. In this context, it is necessary to mention the already operating nuclear power plant with a low–power reactor located in the Far East of the Russian Federation - Bilibinskaya NPP. A distinctive feature of this station is not only its remote location from cities, 3340 km from the nearest large city, but also its compactness, which allows you to avoid over construction and operation costs, as well as excessive electricity supply [9]. The project provides for the operation of 4 power units, each with a capacity of 12 MW, which in total amounts to 48 MW of electricity produced. Despite the fact that the Bilibinsk NPP was designed and built to ensure the vital activity of mining and gold mining enterprises in Chukotka, the experience gained can also be applied in countries with low power consumption. In the context of the current environmental protection agenda, it is also worth adding that according to the report provided, Bilibinsk NPP does not exceed waste generation standards and limits on their disposal. The volume of waste generated from the production and consumption of Bilibino NPP in 2022 did not exceed 1/3 of the annual standard, due to the high level of environmental safety of the plant. This indicator remained at the same level compared to the indicator of 2021 [10].
However, in the context of diversification and development of alternative energy sources, taking into account the complexity and cost of creating the necessary energy infrastructure for many developing countries, it is necessary to mention a new type of nuclear power plants, the use of which will potentially help many states, including those located in remote places, to solve the problem of lack of electricity. In this case, we are talking about floating nuclear power plants (hereinafter referred to as FNPP).
New technologies in the field of floating nuclear power plants.
Modern technologies in the nuclear industry are developing relatively quickly, not only from the point of view of technological progress, but also from the point of view of geographical and technological accessibility. To date, there are many variants of reactors of various designs: Water-water power reactors (hereinafter - VVER); High-temperature gas reactors (hereinafter - HTGR); Liquid salt reactors (hereinafter - LSR); High-power channel reactors (hereinafter - RBMK); Fast neutron reactors (hereinafter - FNR); microreactors; Small modular reactors (hereinafter - SMR) and others. All the above-mentioned designs differ in their design, fuel used, operating principle and power output. Many of them, such as VVER-1200, are actively used in various countries, and the widespread practice of implementing reactors of this type is due to its relative simplicity, long service life, as well as the presence of an in-depth analysis of the operation of a reactor of this type, which in turn has a positive effect on the experience used in construction and operation. To date, nuclear reactors of this type, in addition to Russia, are used in Hungary and China, as well as being built in Bangladesh, Turkey and Egypt. However, despite its attractiveness, from the point of view of economic benefits and availability of electricity, in the history of mass use of nuclear power plants, a negative surge regularly occurs during the operation of nuclear power plants. There are three most important stages: the first is associated with the 1979 accidents at the Three Mail Island nuclear power plant in the USA, in the state of Pennsylvania. The cause was a coolant leak and its untimely detection. This incident has sown a certain fear and wariness in the minds of the population not only of America, but also of the whole world in relation to the use of peaceful atom. The next stage, which has become a key one, from the point of view of the policy against the expansion of the nuclear industry, due to its scale and consequences, is the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986. According to unconfirmed estimates, more than 50 people died and about 4,500 were potentially fatally infected. According to the INES International Scale of Nuclear and Radioactive Events, the Chernobyl accident qualifies as the largest with extensive consequences for public health and the environment [11]. According to statistics, after the 80s of the last century, the number of nuclear power plants being constructed and put into operation has significantly decreased for a certain period of time. Such a decline did not last for a relatively long time, and at a certain point in time, the nuclear industry moved back into growth [12]. However, the third accident that affected the implementation of new projects is the Fukushima Daiichi accident, which, like the one that previously occurred at the Chernobyl nuclear Power Plant, is classified as level 7 on the INES scale. A distinctive feature is that in the case of Focusing, deep-layered protection was implemented, potentially preventing a large number of victims, even despite the shutdown of several systems due to external influences. This fact has prompted the public to pay special attention to the use and control of passive security systems. It should also be emphasized that despite the potential of nuclear power plants to provide affordable and affordable electricity to the population, many associations in the form of multinational companies and non-profit organizations oppose the expansion of this industry due to the unwillingness to divide the international energy market and reduce the share of oil or gas supplies in it. Lobbying by oil companies has a significant impact on the promotion of nuclear technologies, and moreover, some states are actively reducing the number of operating reactors, despite the emerging energy crisis and an increase in the cost of electricity. Such actions go against the policy of the United Nations regarding the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals "Low-cost and clean energy". Moreover, in the long term, the increase in the cost and availability of electricity will affect the development of production and human potential in many countries, including the European Union.
In many ways, the refusal to implement nuclear power plants on the territory of the state is associated with the creation of the necessary regulatory framework, compliance with international standards, as well as with a high degree of responsibility for the safety of nuclear power plants.
Modern policy in the field of the nuclear industry strictly regulates any activity of international entities with nuclear developments, however, in addition to the responsibility mentioned earlier, countries also bear significant financial costs for the implementation of nuclear facilities and its further operation. However, modern technologies of the nuclear industry are actively developing not only in the field of new nuclear power plants, but also at the sites where they are installed. Thus, today there is an innovative project that makes it possible to provide the use of nuclear energy to those countries that do not have the opportunity to build full-scale plants, as well as remote regions, for example, the far North, where the construction of a nuclear power plant site is impossible for geological reasons.
Floating nuclear thermal power plants are a new approach in the field of nuclear industry, which can potentially solve the problem of lack of electricity in many countries of Africa, Asia and other regions. Moreover, multinational companies and enterprises located in remote locations and not falling under the general electrification of a nearby state may be among the importers of electricity generated by the NPP.
Despite the fact that there is currently no official definition of a floating thermal power plant, it is necessary to describe this project as closely as possible in order to further understand the potential that it carries. Today, a nuclear power plant is understood as a non-self-propelled vessel constructed according to a pre-developed design, taking into account the availability of the necessary infrastructure and the placement of a reactor on it. Most of the floating stations being developed today involve the use of small modular reactors. When defining the concept of a nuclear power plant, it is worth referring to the INPRO Collaborative Project document "Case Study for the Deployment of a Factory Fueled SMR", in which the authors indicate that a "transportable nuclear power plant" is defined as a factory-made, transported or relocatable nuclear power plant that, when fueled, is capable of producing final energy products such as electricity, heat, or desalination of water [13]. A TPP can also be defined as an offshore, surface or land-based energy system covering at least two sites - production and auxiliary, with a transportable reactor plant. It is important to emphasize that it can be physically transportable, but it is not intended to produce electricity during transportation, nor to provide energy for transportation itself. The issue of transportation is one of the most controversial when discussing regulatory norms in the field of hydropower plants.
To date, there is the only functioning floating nuclear power plant in the world — Akademik Lomonosov (hereinafter — AL), located in Russia, Pevek, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, which gives it the title of the northernmost nuclear power plant in the world [14]. The implementation of the AL project was started back in 2005. For a long period of time, one of the main tasks was to create the necessary regulatory framework for future construction and operation. This process was complicated by the lack of the necessary nomenclature of documents capable of regulating the actions of floating stations not only in territorial waters, but also in principle in the water space. However, more than 10 years later, in 2019, Academician Lomonosov was moored in Pevek, where it was put into operation a year later. During the transportation of the NPP, another problem was identified, namely, the passage of the station through the territorial waters of third countries, which, for fear of the safety of coastal waters, refused to pass the AL at the time when nuclear fuel was on board (hereinafter referred to as YT). Despite all the difficulties that have arisen, the station is actively operated today and thanks to its work, more than 300,000 tons of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere have been prevented; 696 million kWh have been produced, 219,000 GCAL of thermal energy have been generated and as a result, more than 50% of consumers of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug are provided with stable electricity supply. It should also be said that the cost for coal and gas plants, in the CHAO, reaches 70-80%, while for nuclear power plants it does not exceed 3%, which proves the economic benefit and also affects the environmental friendliness of the project [15].
Despite the previously mentioned fact associated with the lack of implemented installations, in addition to AL, it is worth mentioning the existing developments. Thus, one of the most interested countries in the implementation of floating stations, due to its geographical location and long maritime border, is the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. At the last IAEA Symposium, the state-owned VinAtom company provided a report on the work done in the field of creating norms, rules and technical base for the further operation of floating stations, including: research on technologies and safety of NPP with MMR, research on the use of AI, creation of conceptual projects for the fuel assembly of light-water MMR, assessment of nuclear energy and safety for the Vietnamese the Seaborg CMSR project, etc. Despite the significant amount of work done, Vietnam does not have sufficient skills, skills, experience and technological potential to implement the APEC in the foreseeable future, which will significantly affect VinAtom's competitiveness. However, in this context, it is necessary to emphasize the unconditional positive factor. By creating and preparing its legal system for the EAEU, Vietnam provides an opportunity to reduce the time required to provide a floating station on its territory of foreign production, for example, when a project of this type appears on the international market, which is also actively being developed by the State Corporation Rosatom. Another, no less remarkable factor, in the context of the speech of the representatives of the SRV, is the mention of the Danish company Seaborg, which also needs to be mentioned.
Seaborg is a Danish company whose main focus is the creation and implementation of a liquid salt reactor. To date, the Compact Molten Salt Reactor (CMSR) project is one of the most detailed and close to the stage of creating a prototype [16]. According to the company's statements, CMSR will be installed on floating barges in order to generate electricity in the future, both for individual enterprises and for small settlements. One of the distinctive features of this project is its joint implementation with the Korean company Samsung, whose shipyards are used to build the "site" of the future floating power plant. However, speaking about this design, it is necessary to emphasize the complexity of the implementation of ZHSR, since existing analogues are still being advised in the world, despite the fact that in addition to Denmark, similar reactors are also being developed in Russia, the USA, South Africa, etc. To this, it is necessary to add the lack of a regulatory framework at the level of the international community and a common position aimed at the use of liquid salt reactors. It is for this reason that in the near future the operation of such innovative designs seems unlikely and in the context of the NPP it is necessary to consider in more detail the reactors that have a sufficient supply of reactors for years of use.
Floating nuclear power plants attract the interest of many states, including the Republic of Korea, which is currently actively developing the design of its own NPP using a small modular reactor BANDI-60 [17]. As mentioned earlier, this country has advanced technologies and capabilities in the field of shipbuilding, which will certainly have a positive impact on the implementation of the South Korean NPP and makes it the most viable project in the near future. However, the BANDI-60 planned for use is currently at the stage of a "conceptual project", which slows down the process of implementing a floating station to a certain extent, given the lack of the required number of reactor-hour tests and a developed legal framework governing the operation of a nuclear power plant.
Returning to the Russian project, Academician Lomonosov, and based on the above, we can conclude that today, the Russian Federation is a leader in this area and, as there are no competitors in the international arena, it has a chance to turn this project into the flagship of the floating nuclear power plant industry.
Taking into account the fact that nuclear power plants are among the most stable sources of energy, it can be assumed that their development and use will have a beneficial effect on ensuring the energy security of the countries of the African continent, the island states of the Indian, Atlantic and Pacific oceans, as well as settlements located in remote areas but with access to reservoirs. It is especially worth emphasizing that according to the conducted assessments of nuclear, radiation and environmental safety, as well as the handling of TRO and LRW, floating nuclear thermal power plants comply with national norms and rules of the Russian Federation, and therefore international ones, since internal NP meet all the requirements of the IAEA [18]. Another distinctive feature of the NPP, in this context, is their mobility and potentially low cost, compared with large nuclear power plants. In the context of pricing, it should be clarified that, unlike classical types of nuclear power plants, the vendor state, in our case, the Russian Federation, can provide services for the generation and transmission of electricity to the customer country without losing ownership rights over the floating village. Thus, the lack of a regulatory body and the necessary regulatory framework in the customer country will potentially not be such a significant problem in the implementation of the transaction, since the vendor state can provide all the necessary services for their creation, and moreover, partial responsibility for the operation of the plant will be borne by the country that already has experience with similar projects and He is a member of the Peaceful Atom group of countries. However, at the same time, it is worth mentioning separately about ensuring the safety of the NPP, namely from the point of view of the term "security". Most African countries are prone to regular social unrest and instability, which potentially leads to uprisings, rallies and armed conflicts. All of the above can be regarded as a potential threat to the safety of the nuclear power plant, especially given the amount of energy produced, its scarcity and high cost in many local areas of the African continent. It is on this basis that security, from the point of view of the term "security", must be carried out in cooperation with both the authorized bodies of the vendor country and the customer country.
The implementation of the FNPP in accordance with the build-own-operate scheme (hereinafter — BOO) The Russian Federation can be considered as one of the instruments of soft power in foreign policy. For a long period of time, for many foreign countries, Russia was associated, from the point of view of foreign policy, as a "world gas station" due to the main source of income — oil, which was backed by gas. In the case of the NPP, the development of this area can potentially develop and change the image of the country in a positive way, namely, in the field of high technologies and advanced production, especially given the fact that most components of modern reactors are produced at domestic enterprises. Moreover, the expansion of the industry is inextricably linked with the scientific and technical potential of the state's personnel reserve and its development will directly affect the improvement of the educational system and the prestige of technical and scientific areas.
Conclusion
Thus, it can be concluded that for most of the history of mankind, one of the most desirable, but at the same time scarce resources was energy. However, due to the development of society, in different centuries, different resources were valued, from wood to oil. Today's realities show the need to move away from traditional types of sources and diversify their supplies to the domestic market. Modern technologies provide an opportunity to develop an equivalent amount of energy for the fuel and energy complex, but at more stable production values and with the possibility of long-term planning. It should also be added that from the point of view of historical retrospect, those States that possessed significant reserves of minerals acquired a special status in the international arena. Taking into account this fact and the integral development of society, including in the field of fuel and energy, the Russian Federation needs to pay special attention to the modernization and improvement of the energy sector, taking into account the use of the latest technologies in order to secure a certain foundation and a leading position in the near future. Nuclear power plants are one of the most suitable and promising types of energy sources, due to the amount of electricity generated, high efficiency, as well as technologies used in construction. Unlike oil production, the nuclear industry requires a high degree of technological development, including in the field of IT technologies and artificial intelligence. It should also be mentioned here that according to the Federal Law of November 21, 1995 No. 170-FZ "On the Use of Atomic Energy" and the Constitution of Russia, the use of nuclear energy belongs to the exclusive jurisdiction of the President, the Government and federal bodies of the Russian Federation, from which it can be concluded that the most important technologies used in the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, of domestic production, are under proper control [19]. Thus, the active development of the nuclear industry can become a catalyst for the development of the country's technical component in various fields. In this case, the NPP assumes the role of a modular tool that allows in a short time and with greater flexibility to carry out the necessary actions for the development of foreign policy in the context of soft power, thereby providing Russia not only with the modernization of the technical component, since this type of station is young and most likely it still has to go through several stages of improvement but also the formation of new or expansion of existing relations with other states. However, before planning the supply of floating nuclear power plants to foreign countries, it is necessary to solve the problem of their regulatory framework and licensing process in the international arena, i.e. creating the necessary documentation base that would serve as the main one for regulators of third countries in their activities. In this direction, it is the Russian Federation, represented by Rostechnadzor, that must assume the role of leader, since only on its territory is the current FNPP located and only Russia has the necessary legislation for its functioning.
With the development of technology, the emergence of new industries, industrial and later scientific and technical revolutions, all new types of energy resources came to the center of the world market, which found their application in various fields. That is how, in a certain period of time, widely used coal was partially replaced by oil and gas, but they did not remain forever, because new types of electricity generation appeared on the world stage, namely nuclear power plants and renewable energy sources (hereinafter referred to as RES), which gradually became increasingly popular. They have given many States the opportunity to reduce energy dependence on other subjects of the international energy arena and increase the diversification of electricity generation.
The role of alternative energy sources
The development of alternative energy sources and the abandonment of traditional ones, in the form of oil, gas and coal, is one of the most frequently mentioned and relevant topics of the modern world. Regular conferences on climate change, as well as meetings at the highest levels, in the form of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention (hereinafter – COP), the Paris Summit, signed by: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (hereinafter – UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol, as well as the raising of this topic at forums such as the World Economic Forum, emphasizes the special importance and concern of world leaders and leading multinational companies with this problem [1],[2]. However, in the context of "new" energy sources, it is necessary to talk about their benefits from the point of view of ensuring energy security and diversifying the energy market, since this topic is less rhetorical and depends more on the specific actions of each interested participant in the international arena, while "combating climate change" is more debatable today and it requires coordinated actions by the parties involved, taking into account the peculiarities of national economies and the potential to achieve the set goals.
For more than 30 years, the abandonment of non–renewable sources (hereinafter referred to as NRS), including types of fuel and energy complex (hereinafter referred to as FEC), has occupied leading positions on the agendas of many states. However, as statistics for 2022 show, so far the overall distribution of energy resources has undergone only minor changes and NIE prevails in the markets of most countries, including the participants of the UNFCCC.
The percentage ratio of the use of both renewable energy and non-renewable energy sources is especially important to consider from the point of view of the distribution of mineral deposits, since upon detailed examination, the resulting picture shows that many countries, including developed ones, are heavily dependent, while the supply of necessary resources to a certain extent affects the rise in energy prices, which in turn makes it less accessible. Moreover, a distinctive feature of the use of fossil fuels is the necessary infrastructure for its processing and, subsequently, generation of electricity. The construction of such technologies requires impressive economic investments, which many developing countries, especially on the African continent, do not have. Ultimately, with large reserves of minerals, some states are forced to import electricity and, due to its cost, as well as limited volume, do not have an additional opportunity that would allow them to direct the excess energy received to the development and modernization of the domestic market, including the construction of production facilities on their territory.
The development of alternative energy sources will allow many states to reduce their dependence on foreign supplies, thereby opening up new opportunities for the development of national industry and the creation of necessary infrastructure, including social infrastructure. However, in this context, it is necessary to take into account the geographical feature of the country, as well as the potential level of electricity consumption, taking into account its further development. Moreover, as emphasized in the article by V.G. Rodionova "Economics and technologies of floating nuclear power plants: Akademik Lomonosov NPP", a variety of high-tech and energy-intensive industries are moving from mainland territories to water spaces, for example, in the field of mining and processing metallurgical industry, which makes us think about the development of new, more mobile, energy sources applicable in remote and hard-to-reach places [6].
Today, the most developed alternative energy sources are: solar power plants (hereinafter referred to as SPP), wind farms (hereinafter referred to as WPP), hydroelectric power plants and nuclear power plants. While the first three categories largely depend on both weather and landscape conditions, nuclear power plants are less susceptible to external influences and their overall efficiency significantly exceeds the coefficient of WPP, SPP or NPP.
Comparing the amount of electricity generated by different types of sources, it is worth giving an example of maps published by a company engaged in the development of energy sources – Terra Praxis. Speaking at a Symposium on the development and institutionalization of floating Nuclear Power Plants (hereinafter — the IAEA Symposium), the company's executive director demonstrated a visual map showing the ratio of the required occupied areas of nuclear power plants and SES for the production of 5 million barrels of oil Equivalent with zero carbon content. The area required by the SES to generate an equivalent amount of energy is 20,000 square kilometers, while 189 square kilometers is enough for a nuclear power plant [7]. Such a ratio shows a significant difference in the LUI (land use intensity) indicator between nuclear power plants and SES, which can serve as confirmation of the higher efficiency of nuclear power plants.
It should also be added that the construction of various kinds of hydraulic structures often requires significant efforts in negotiations with neighboring states, because often, especially in arid regions, water plays a vital role for the population, it is used as a source of fresh drinking water, for irrigation of agricultural land and for communal purposes. Given that most rivers flow through several states, the construction of hydroelectric power plants can significantly affect the quantity and quality of incoming water in States located further south along the riverbed. In addition to the fact that the international legal regulation of this issue is considered to be not fully formulated and not complete, the occurrence of such a dispute due to the construction of water infrastructure may lead to a dispute and conflict between the parties concerned. A striking example is the long-running conflict, often turning into active phases, between India and Pakistan, where one of the reasons is water use. It is in the Kashmir region that the headwaters of four rivers are located, which are of particular importance for irrigation systems
Islamabad [8].
Speaking about the development of nuclear power plants, it should be emphasized that their advantage is due to the amount of potential electricity generated. Taking into account the fact that many states today do not require a large amount of electricity, due to the lack of energy–intensive industry and any other infrastructure, modern companies in the field of nuclear industry develop and design both small modular reactors (hereinafter - SMR) and nuclear microreactors suitable for countries with low power consumption. In this context, it is necessary to mention the already operating nuclear power plant with a low–power reactor located in the Far East of the Russian Federation - Bilibinskaya NPP. A distinctive feature of this station is not only its remote location from cities, 3340 km from the nearest large city, but also its compactness, which allows you to avoid over construction and operation costs, as well as excessive electricity supply [9]. The project provides for the operation of 4 power units, each with a capacity of 12 MW, which in total amounts to 48 MW of electricity produced. Despite the fact that the Bilibinsk NPP was designed and built to ensure the vital activity of mining and gold mining enterprises in Chukotka, the experience gained can also be applied in countries with low power consumption. In the context of the current environmental protection agenda, it is also worth adding that according to the report provided, Bilibinsk NPP does not exceed waste generation standards and limits on their disposal. The volume of waste generated from the production and consumption of Bilibino NPP in 2022 did not exceed 1/3 of the annual standard, due to the high level of environmental safety of the plant. This indicator remained at the same level compared to the indicator of 2021 [10].
However, in the context of diversification and development of alternative energy sources, taking into account the complexity and cost of creating the necessary energy infrastructure for many developing countries, it is necessary to mention a new type of nuclear power plants, the use of which will potentially help many states, including those located in remote places, to solve the problem of lack of electricity. In this case, we are talking about floating nuclear power plants (hereinafter referred to as FNPP).
New technologies in the field of floating nuclear power plants.
Modern technologies in the nuclear industry are developing relatively quickly, not only from the point of view of technological progress, but also from the point of view of geographical and technological accessibility. To date, there are many variants of reactors of various designs: Water-water power reactors (hereinafter - VVER); High-temperature gas reactors (hereinafter - HTGR); Liquid salt reactors (hereinafter - LSR); High-power channel reactors (hereinafter - RBMK); Fast neutron reactors (hereinafter - FNR); microreactors; Small modular reactors (hereinafter - SMR) and others. All the above-mentioned designs differ in their design, fuel used, operating principle and power output. Many of them, such as VVER-1200, are actively used in various countries, and the widespread practice of implementing reactors of this type is due to its relative simplicity, long service life, as well as the presence of an in-depth analysis of the operation of a reactor of this type, which in turn has a positive effect on the experience used in construction and operation. To date, nuclear reactors of this type, in addition to Russia, are used in Hungary and China, as well as being built in Bangladesh, Turkey and Egypt. However, despite its attractiveness, from the point of view of economic benefits and availability of electricity, in the history of mass use of nuclear power plants, a negative surge regularly occurs during the operation of nuclear power plants. There are three most important stages: the first is associated with the 1979 accidents at the Three Mail Island nuclear power plant in the USA, in the state of Pennsylvania. The cause was a coolant leak and its untimely detection. This incident has sown a certain fear and wariness in the minds of the population not only of America, but also of the whole world in relation to the use of peaceful atom. The next stage, which has become a key one, from the point of view of the policy against the expansion of the nuclear industry, due to its scale and consequences, is the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986. According to unconfirmed estimates, more than 50 people died and about 4,500 were potentially fatally infected. According to the INES International Scale of Nuclear and Radioactive Events, the Chernobyl accident qualifies as the largest with extensive consequences for public health and the environment [11]. According to statistics, after the 80s of the last century, the number of nuclear power plants being constructed and put into operation has significantly decreased for a certain period of time. Such a decline did not last for a relatively long time, and at a certain point in time, the nuclear industry moved back into growth [12]. However, the third accident that affected the implementation of new projects is the Fukushima Daiichi accident, which, like the one that previously occurred at the Chernobyl nuclear Power Plant, is classified as level 7 on the INES scale. A distinctive feature is that in the case of Focusing, deep-layered protection was implemented, potentially preventing a large number of victims, even despite the shutdown of several systems due to external influences. This fact has prompted the public to pay special attention to the use and control of passive security systems. It should also be emphasized that despite the potential of nuclear power plants to provide affordable and affordable electricity to the population, many associations in the form of multinational companies and non-profit organizations oppose the expansion of this industry due to the unwillingness to divide the international energy market and reduce the share of oil or gas supplies in it. Lobbying by oil companies has a significant impact on the promotion of nuclear technologies, and moreover, some states are actively reducing the number of operating reactors, despite the emerging energy crisis and an increase in the cost of electricity. Such actions go against the policy of the United Nations regarding the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals "Low-cost and clean energy". Moreover, in the long term, the increase in the cost and availability of electricity will affect the development of production and human potential in many countries, including the European Union.
In many ways, the refusal to implement nuclear power plants on the territory of the state is associated with the creation of the necessary regulatory framework, compliance with international standards, as well as with a high degree of responsibility for the safety of nuclear power plants.
Modern policy in the field of the nuclear industry strictly regulates any activity of international entities with nuclear developments, however, in addition to the responsibility mentioned earlier, countries also bear significant financial costs for the implementation of nuclear facilities and its further operation. However, modern technologies of the nuclear industry are actively developing not only in the field of new nuclear power plants, but also at the sites where they are installed. Thus, today there is an innovative project that makes it possible to provide the use of nuclear energy to those countries that do not have the opportunity to build full-scale plants, as well as remote regions, for example, the far North, where the construction of a nuclear power plant site is impossible for geological reasons.
Floating nuclear thermal power plants are a new approach in the field of nuclear industry, which can potentially solve the problem of lack of electricity in many countries of Africa, Asia and other regions. Moreover, multinational companies and enterprises located in remote locations and not falling under the general electrification of a nearby state may be among the importers of electricity generated by the NPP.
Despite the fact that there is currently no official definition of a floating thermal power plant, it is necessary to describe this project as closely as possible in order to further understand the potential that it carries. Today, a nuclear power plant is understood as a non-self-propelled vessel constructed according to a pre-developed design, taking into account the availability of the necessary infrastructure and the placement of a reactor on it. Most of the floating stations being developed today involve the use of small modular reactors. When defining the concept of a nuclear power plant, it is worth referring to the INPRO Collaborative Project document "Case Study for the Deployment of a Factory Fueled SMR", in which the authors indicate that a "transportable nuclear power plant" is defined as a factory-made, transported or relocatable nuclear power plant that, when fueled, is capable of producing final energy products such as electricity, heat, or desalination of water [13]. A TPP can also be defined as an offshore, surface or land-based energy system covering at least two sites - production and auxiliary, with a transportable reactor plant. It is important to emphasize that it can be physically transportable, but it is not intended to produce electricity during transportation, nor to provide energy for transportation itself. The issue of transportation is one of the most controversial when discussing regulatory norms in the field of hydropower plants.
To date, there is the only functioning floating nuclear power plant in the world — Akademik Lomonosov (hereinafter — AL), located in Russia, Pevek, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, which gives it the title of the northernmost nuclear power plant in the world [14]. The implementation of the AL project was started back in 2005. For a long period of time, one of the main tasks was to create the necessary regulatory framework for future construction and operation. This process was complicated by the lack of the necessary nomenclature of documents capable of regulating the actions of floating stations not only in territorial waters, but also in principle in the water space. However, more than 10 years later, in 2019, Academician Lomonosov was moored in Pevek, where it was put into operation a year later. During the transportation of the NPP, another problem was identified, namely, the passage of the station through the territorial waters of third countries, which, for fear of the safety of coastal waters, refused to pass the AL at the time when nuclear fuel was on board (hereinafter referred to as YT). Despite all the difficulties that have arisen, the station is actively operated today and thanks to its work, more than 300,000 tons of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere have been prevented; 696 million kWh have been produced, 219,000 GCAL of thermal energy have been generated and as a result, more than 50% of consumers of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug are provided with stable electricity supply. It should also be said that the cost for coal and gas plants, in the CHAO, reaches 70-80%, while for nuclear power plants it does not exceed 3%, which proves the economic benefit and also affects the environmental friendliness of the project [15].
Despite the previously mentioned fact associated with the lack of implemented installations, in addition to AL, it is worth mentioning the existing developments. Thus, one of the most interested countries in the implementation of floating stations, due to its geographical location and long maritime border, is the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. At the last IAEA Symposium, the state-owned VinAtom company provided a report on the work done in the field of creating norms, rules and technical base for the further operation of floating stations, including: research on technologies and safety of NPP with MMR, research on the use of AI, creation of conceptual projects for the fuel assembly of light-water MMR, assessment of nuclear energy and safety for the Vietnamese the Seaborg CMSR project, etc. Despite the significant amount of work done, Vietnam does not have sufficient skills, skills, experience and technological potential to implement the APEC in the foreseeable future, which will significantly affect VinAtom's competitiveness. However, in this context, it is necessary to emphasize the unconditional positive factor. By creating and preparing its legal system for the EAEU, Vietnam provides an opportunity to reduce the time required to provide a floating station on its territory of foreign production, for example, when a project of this type appears on the international market, which is also actively being developed by the State Corporation Rosatom. Another, no less remarkable factor, in the context of the speech of the representatives of the SRV, is the mention of the Danish company Seaborg, which also needs to be mentioned.
Seaborg is a Danish company whose main focus is the creation and implementation of a liquid salt reactor. To date, the Compact Molten Salt Reactor (CMSR) project is one of the most detailed and close to the stage of creating a prototype [16]. According to the company's statements, CMSR will be installed on floating barges in order to generate electricity in the future, both for individual enterprises and for small settlements. One of the distinctive features of this project is its joint implementation with the Korean company Samsung, whose shipyards are used to build the "site" of the future floating power plant. However, speaking about this design, it is necessary to emphasize the complexity of the implementation of ZHSR, since existing analogues are still being advised in the world, despite the fact that in addition to Denmark, similar reactors are also being developed in Russia, the USA, South Africa, etc. To this, it is necessary to add the lack of a regulatory framework at the level of the international community and a common position aimed at the use of liquid salt reactors. It is for this reason that in the near future the operation of such innovative designs seems unlikely and in the context of the NPP it is necessary to consider in more detail the reactors that have a sufficient supply of reactors for years of use.
Floating nuclear power plants attract the interest of many states, including the Republic of Korea, which is currently actively developing the design of its own NPP using a small modular reactor BANDI-60 [17]. As mentioned earlier, this country has advanced technologies and capabilities in the field of shipbuilding, which will certainly have a positive impact on the implementation of the South Korean NPP and makes it the most viable project in the near future. However, the BANDI-60 planned for use is currently at the stage of a "conceptual project", which slows down the process of implementing a floating station to a certain extent, given the lack of the required number of reactor-hour tests and a developed legal framework governing the operation of a nuclear power plant.
Returning to the Russian project, Academician Lomonosov, and based on the above, we can conclude that today, the Russian Federation is a leader in this area and, as there are no competitors in the international arena, it has a chance to turn this project into the flagship of the floating nuclear power plant industry.
Taking into account the fact that nuclear power plants are among the most stable sources of energy, it can be assumed that their development and use will have a beneficial effect on ensuring the energy security of the countries of the African continent, the island states of the Indian, Atlantic and Pacific oceans, as well as settlements located in remote areas but with access to reservoirs. It is especially worth emphasizing that according to the conducted assessments of nuclear, radiation and environmental safety, as well as the handling of TRO and LRW, floating nuclear thermal power plants comply with national norms and rules of the Russian Federation, and therefore international ones, since internal NP meet all the requirements of the IAEA [18]. Another distinctive feature of the NPP, in this context, is their mobility and potentially low cost, compared with large nuclear power plants. In the context of pricing, it should be clarified that, unlike classical types of nuclear power plants, the vendor state, in our case, the Russian Federation, can provide services for the generation and transmission of electricity to the customer country without losing ownership rights over the floating village. Thus, the lack of a regulatory body and the necessary regulatory framework in the customer country will potentially not be such a significant problem in the implementation of the transaction, since the vendor state can provide all the necessary services for their creation, and moreover, partial responsibility for the operation of the plant will be borne by the country that already has experience with similar projects and He is a member of the Peaceful Atom group of countries. However, at the same time, it is worth mentioning separately about ensuring the safety of the NPP, namely from the point of view of the term "security". Most African countries are prone to regular social unrest and instability, which potentially leads to uprisings, rallies and armed conflicts. All of the above can be regarded as a potential threat to the safety of the nuclear power plant, especially given the amount of energy produced, its scarcity and high cost in many local areas of the African continent. It is on this basis that security, from the point of view of the term "security", must be carried out in cooperation with both the authorized bodies of the vendor country and the customer country.
The implementation of the FNPP in accordance with the build-own-operate scheme (hereinafter — BOO) The Russian Federation can be considered as one of the instruments of soft power in foreign policy. For a long period of time, for many foreign countries, Russia was associated, from the point of view of foreign policy, as a "world gas station" due to the main source of income — oil, which was backed by gas. In the case of the NPP, the development of this area can potentially develop and change the image of the country in a positive way, namely, in the field of high technologies and advanced production, especially given the fact that most components of modern reactors are produced at domestic enterprises. Moreover, the expansion of the industry is inextricably linked with the scientific and technical potential of the state's personnel reserve and its development will directly affect the improvement of the educational system and the prestige of technical and scientific areas.
Conclusion
Thus, it can be concluded that for most of the history of mankind, one of the most desirable, but at the same time scarce resources was energy. However, due to the development of society, in different centuries, different resources were valued, from wood to oil. Today's realities show the need to move away from traditional types of sources and diversify their supplies to the domestic market. Modern technologies provide an opportunity to develop an equivalent amount of energy for the fuel and energy complex, but at more stable production values and with the possibility of long-term planning. It should also be added that from the point of view of historical retrospect, those States that possessed significant reserves of minerals acquired a special status in the international arena. Taking into account this fact and the integral development of society, including in the field of fuel and energy, the Russian Federation needs to pay special attention to the modernization and improvement of the energy sector, taking into account the use of the latest technologies in order to secure a certain foundation and a leading position in the near future. Nuclear power plants are one of the most suitable and promising types of energy sources, due to the amount of electricity generated, high efficiency, as well as technologies used in construction. Unlike oil production, the nuclear industry requires a high degree of technological development, including in the field of IT technologies and artificial intelligence. It should also be mentioned here that according to the Federal Law of November 21, 1995 No. 170-FZ "On the Use of Atomic Energy" and the Constitution of Russia, the use of nuclear energy belongs to the exclusive jurisdiction of the President, the Government and federal bodies of the Russian Federation, from which it can be concluded that the most important technologies used in the construction and operation of nuclear power plants, of domestic production, are under proper control [19]. Thus, the active development of the nuclear industry can become a catalyst for the development of the country's technical component in various fields. In this case, the NPP assumes the role of a modular tool that allows in a short time and with greater flexibility to carry out the necessary actions for the development of foreign policy in the context of soft power, thereby providing Russia not only with the modernization of the technical component, since this type of station is young and most likely it still has to go through several stages of improvement but also the formation of new or expansion of existing relations with other states. However, before planning the supply of floating nuclear power plants to foreign countries, it is necessary to solve the problem of their regulatory framework and licensing process in the international arena, i.e. creating the necessary documentation base that would serve as the main one for regulators of third countries in their activities. In this direction, it is the Russian Federation, represented by Rostechnadzor, that must assume the role of leader, since only on its territory is the current FNPP located and only Russia has the necessary legislation for its functioning.
09 April
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